Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Uses Therefor

ABSTRACT

Methods of treating autoimmune diseases, allergic responses, cancer, or inflammatory diseases in an animal, promoting would healing, repairing epithelial damage and promoting angiogenesis in an organ or tissue of an animal by administering to the animal mesenchymal stem cells in an effective amount.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of Ser. No. 14/087,830, filed Nov.22, 2013, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/908,119, filed Oct. 20, 2010, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 11/541,853, filed Oct. 2, 2006, now abandoned,which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/080,298, filed Mar. 15, 2005, now abandoned, which claims prioritybased on U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/555,118, filedMar. 22, 2004, now expired, the contents of which are incorporated byreference in their entireties.

FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

The invention was made with Government support under Contract No.N66001-02-C-8068 awarded by the Department of the Navy. The Governmenthas certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to mesenchymal stem cells. More particularly,this invention relates to novel uses for mesenchymal stem cells,including promoting angiogenesis in various tissues and organs, treatingautoimmune diseases, treating allergic responses, treating cancer,treating inflammatory diseases and disorders, promoting would healing,treating inflammation, and repairing epithelial damage.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent stem cells that candifferentiate readily into lineages including osteoblasts, myocytes,chondrocytes, and adipocytes (Pittenger, et al., Science, Vol. 284, pg.143 (1999); Haynesworth, et al., Bone, Vol. 13, pg. 69 (1992); Prockop,Science, Vol. 276, pg. 71 (1997)). In vitro studies have demonstratedthe capability of MSCs to differentiate into muscle (Wakitani, et al.,Muscle Nerve, Vol. 18, pg. 1417 (1995)), neuronal-like precursors(Woodbury, et al., J. Neurosci. Res., Vol. 69, pg. 908 (2002);Sanchez-Ramos, et al., EXP. Neurol., Vol. 171, pg. 109 (2001)),cardiomyocytes (Toma, et al., Circulation, Vol. 105, pg. 93 (2002);Fakuda, Artif. Organs, Vol. 25, pg. 187 (2001)) and possibly other celltypes. In addition, MSCs have been shown to provide effective feederlayers for expansion of hematopoietic and embryonic stem cells (Eaves,et al., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. 938, pg. 63 (2001); Wagers, et al.,Gene Therapy, Vol. 9, pg. 606 (2002)). Recent studies with a variety ofanimal models have shown that MSCs may be useful in the repair orregeneration of damaged bone, cartilage, meniscus or myocardial tissues(DeKok, et al., Clin. Oral Implants Res., Vol. 14, pg. 481 (2003)); Wu,et al., Transplantation, Vol. 75, pg. 679 (2003); Noel, et al., Curr.Opin. Investig. Drugs, Vol. 3, pg. 1000 (2002); Ballas, et al., J. Cell.Biochem. Suppl., Vol. 38, pg. 20 (2002); Mackenzie, et al., Blood CellsMol. Dis., Vol. 27 (2002)). Several investigators have used MSCs withencouraging results for transplantation in animal disease modelsincluding osteogenesis imperfecta (Pereira, et al., Proc. Nat. Acad.Sci., Vol. 95, pg. 1142 (1998)), parkinsonism (Schwartz, et al., Hum.Gene Ther., Vol. 10, pg. 2539 (1999)), spinal cord injury (Chopp, etal., Neuroreport, Vol. 11, pg. 3001 (2000); Wu, et al., J. Neurosci.Res., Vol. 72, pg. 393 (2003)) and cardiac disorders (Tomita, et al.,Circulation, Vol. 100, pg. 247 (1999). Shake, et al., Ann. Thorac.Surg., Vol. 73, pg. 1919 (2002)). Importantly, promising results alsohave been reported in clinical trials for osteogenesis imperfecta(Horwitz, et al., Blood, Vol. 97, pg. 1227 (2001); Horowitz, et al.Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Vol. 99, pg. 8932 (2002)) and enhancedengraftment of heterologous bone marrow transplants (Frassoni, et al.,Int. Society for Cell Therapy, SA006 (abstract) (2002); Koc, et al., J.Clin. Oncol., Vol. 18, pg. 307 (2000)).

MSCs express major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I antigen ontheir surface but do not express MHC class II (Le Blanc, et al., EXP.Hematol., Vol. 31, pg. 890 (2003); Potian, et al., J. Immunol., Vol.171, pg. 3426 (2003)) and no B7 or CD40 co-stimulatory molecules(Majumdar, et al., J. Biomed. Sci., Vol. 10, pg. 228 (2003)), suggestingthat these cells have a low-immunogenic phenotype (Tse, et al.,Transplantation, Vol. 75, pg. 389 (2003)). MSCs also inhibit T-cellproliferative responses in an MHC-independent manner (Bartholomew, etal., EXP. Hematol., Vol. 30, pg. 42 (2002); Devine, et al., Cancer J.,Vol. 7, pg. 576 (2001); DiNicola, et al., Blood, Vol. 99, pg. 3838(2002)). These immunological properties of MSCs may enhance theirtransplant engraftment and limit the ability of the recipient immunesystem to recognize and reject allogeneic cells followingtransplantation. The production of factors by MSCs, that modulate theimmune response and support hematopoiesis together with their ability todifferentiate into appropriate cell types under local stimuli make themdesirable stem cells for cellular transplantation studies (Majumdar, etal., Hematother. Stem Cell Res., Vol. 9, pg. 841 (2000); Haynesworth, etal., J. Cell. Physiol., Vol. 166, pg. 585 (1996).

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Applicants presently have examined the interactions of mesenchymal stemcells with isolated immune cell populations, including dendritic cells(DC1 and DC2), effector T-cells (Th1 and Th2), and NK cells. Based onsuch interactions, Applicants discovered that mesenchymal stem cells mayregulate the production of various factors that may regulate severalsteps in the immune response process. Thus, the mesenchymal stem cellsmay be employed in the treatment of disease conditions and disordersinvolving the immune system, or diseases, conditions, or disordersinvolving inflammation, epithelial damage, or allergic responses. Suchdiseases, conditions, and disorders include, but are not limited to,autoimmune diseases, allergies, arthritis, inflamed wounds, alopeciaaraeta (baldness), periodontal diseases including gingivitis andperiodontitis, and other diseases, conditions or disorders involving animmune response.

In addition, it is believed that mesenchymal stem cells express andsecrete vascular endothelial growth factor, or VEGF, which promotesangiogenesis by stimulating the formation of new blood vessels.Mesenchymal stem cells also stimulate peripheral blood mononuclear cells(PBMCs) to produce VEGF.

Furthermore, it is believed that mesenchymal stem cells stimulatedendritic cells (DCs) to produce Interferon-Beta (IFN-β), which promotestumor suppression and immunity against viral infection.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with an aspect of the present invention, there is provideda method of treating a disease selected from the group consisting ofautoimmune diseases and graft-versus-host disease in an animal. Themethod comprises administering to the animal mesenchymal stem cells inan amount effective to treat the disease in the animal.

Although the scope of this aspect of the present Invention is not to belimited to any theoretical reasoning, it is believed that at least onemechanism by which the mesenchymal stem cells suppress autoimmunedisease and graft-versus-host disease is by causing the release ofInterleukin-10 (IL-10) from regulatory T-cells (T_(res) cells) and/ordendritic cells (DC).

Autoimmune diseases which may be treated in accordance with the presentinvention include, but are not limited to, multiple sclerosis, Type 1diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, uveitis, autoimmune thyroid disease,inflammatory bowel disease, scleroderma, Graves' Disease, lupus, Crohn'sdisease, autoimmune lymphoproliferative disease (ALPS), demyelinatingdisease, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, autoimmune gastritis (AIG), andautoimmune glomerular diseases. Also, as noted hereinabove,graft-versus-host disease may be treated. It is to be understood,however, that the scope of the present invention is not to be limited tothe treatment of the specific diseases mentioned herein.

In one embodiment, the animal to which the mesenchymal stem cells areadministered is a mammal. The mammal may be a primate, including humanand non-human primates.

In general, the mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy is based, forexample, on the following sequence: harvest of MSC-containing tissue,isolation and expansion of MSCs, and administration of the MSCs to theanimal, with or without biochemical or genetic manipulation.

The mesenchymal stem cells that are administered may be a homogeneouscomposition or may be a mixed cell population enriched in MSCs.Homogeneous mesenchymal stem cell compositions may be obtained byculturing adherent marrow or periosteal cells, and the mesenchymal stemcell compositions may be obtained by culturing adherent marrow orperiosteal cells, and the mesenchymal stem cells may be identified byspecific cell surface markers which are identified with uniquemonoclonal antibodies. A method for obtaining a cell population enrichedin mesenchymal stem cells is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No.5,486,359. Alternative sources for mesenchymal stem cells include, butare not limited to, blood, skin, cord blood, muscle, fat, bone, andperichondrium.

Compositions having greater than about 95%, usually greater than about98%, of human mesenchymal stem cells can be achieved using techniquesfor isolation, purification, and culture expansion of mesenchymal stemcells. For example, isolated, cultured mesenchymal stem cells maycomprise a single phenotypic population (about 95% or about 98%homogeneous) by flow cytometric analysis of expressed surface antigens.The desired cells in such composition are identified as expressing acell surface marker (e.g., CD73 or CD105) specifically bound by anantibody produced from hybridoma cell line SH2, ATCC accession number HB10743; an antibody produced from hybridoma cell line SH3, ATCC accessionnumber HB 10744; or an antibody produced from hybridoma cell line SH4,ATCC accession number HB 10745.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered by a variety ofprocedures. The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered systemically,such as by intravenous, intraarterial, or intraperitonealadministration.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be from a spectrum of sources includingautologous, allogeneic, or xenogeneic.

The mesenchymal stem cells are administered in an amount effective totreat an autoimmune disease or graft-versus-host disease in an animal.The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered in an amount of fromabout 1×10⁵ cells/kg to about 1×10⁷ cells/kg. In another embodiment, themesenchymal stem cells are administered in an amount of from about 1×10⁶cells/kg to about 5×10⁶·cells/kg. The amount of mesenchymal stem cellsto be administered is dependent upon a variety of factors, including theage, weight, and sex of the patient, the autoimmune disease to betreated, and the extent and severity thereof.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered in conjunction with anacceptable pharmaceutical carrier. For example, the mesenchymal stemcells may be administered as a cell suspension in a pharmaceuticallyacceptable liquid medium or gel for injection or topical application.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a method of treating an inflammatory response in an animal. Themethod comprises administering to the animal mesenchymal stem cells inan amount effective to treat the inflammatory response in the animal.

Although the scope of this aspect of the present invention is not to belimited to any theoretical reasoning, it is believed that themesenchymal stem cells promote T-cell maturation to regulatory T-cells(T_(reg)), thereby controlling inflammatory responses. It is alsobelieved that the mesenchymal stem cells inhibit T helper 1 cells (Th1cells), thereby decreasing the expression of the Interferon-γ), (IFN-γ)in certain inflammatory reactions, such as those associated withpsoriasis, for example.

In one embodiment, the inflammatory responses which may be treated arethose associated with psoriasis.

In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may be administered toan animal such that the mesenchymal stem cells contact microglia and/orastrocytes in the brain to reduce inflammation, whereby the mesenchymalstem cells limit neurodegeneration caused by activated glial cells indiseases, or disorders such as Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease,stroke, or brain cell injuries.

In yet another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may beadministered to an animal such that the mesenchymal stem cells contactkeratinocytes and Langerhans cells in the epidermis of the skin toreduce inflammation as may occur in psoriasis, chronic dermatitis, andcontact dermatitis. Although this embodiment is not to be limited to anytheoretical reasoning, it is believed that the mesenchymal stem cellsmay contact the keratinocytes and Langerhans cells in the epidermis, andalter the expression of T-cell receptors and cytokine secretionprofiles, leading to decreased expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha(TNF-α) and increased regulatory T-cell (T_(reg) cell) population.

In a further embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may be used toreduce inflammation in the bone, as occurs in arthritis andarthritis-like conditions, including but not limited to, osteoarthritisand rheumatoid arthritis, and other arthritic diseases listed in thewebsite www.arthritis.org/conditions/diseases. Although the scope ofthis embodiment is not intended to be limited to any theoreticalreasoning, it is believed that the mesenchymal stem cells may inhibitInterleukin-17 secretion by memory T-cells in the synovial fluid.

In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may be used to limitinflammation in the gut and liver during Inflammatory bowel disease andchronic hepatitis, respectively. Although the scope of this aspect ofthe present invention is not intended to be limited to any theoreticalreasoning, it is believed that the mesenchymal stem cells promoteincreased secretion of Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and the generation ofregulatory T-cells (T_(reg) cells).

In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may be used to inhibitexcessive neutrophil and macrophage activation in pathologicalconditions such as sepsis and trauma, including burn injury, surgery,and transplants. Although the scope of this embodiment is not to belimited to any theoretical reasoning, it is believed the mesenchymalstem cells promote secretion of suppressive cytokines such as IL-10, andinhibit macrophage migration inhibitory factor.

In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may be used to controlinflammation in immune privileged sites such as the eye, including thecornea, lens, pigment epithelium, and retina, brain, spinal cord,pregnant uterus and placenta, ovary, testes, adrenal cortex, liver, andhair follicles. Although the scope of this embodiment is not to belimited to any theoretical reasoning, it is believed that themesenchymal stem cells promote the secretion of suppressive cytokinessuch as IL-10 and the generation of T_(reg) cells.

In yet another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may be used totreat tissue damage associated with end-stage renal disease (ESRD)infections during dialysis and/or glomerulonephritis. Although the scopeof this embodiment is not to be limited to any theoretical reasoning, itis believed that mesenchymal stem cells may promote renal repair.Mesenchymal stem cells also express and secrete vascular endothelialgrowth factor, or VEGF, which stimulates new blood vessel formation,which should aid in the repair of damaged kidney tissue.

In a further embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may be used tocontrol viral infections such as influenza, hepatitis C, Herpes SimplexVirus, vaccinia virus infections, and Epstein-Barr virus. Although thescope of this embodiment is not to be limited to any theoreticalreasoning, it is believed that the mesenchymal stem cells promote thesecretion of Interferon-Beta (IFN-8).

In yet another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may be used tocontrol parasitic infections such as Leishmania infections andHelicobacter infections. Although the scope of this embodiment is not tobe limited to any theoretical reasoning, it is believed that themesenchymal stem cells mediate responses by T helper 2 (Th2) cells, andthereby promote increased production of Immunoglobulin E (IgE) byβ-cells.

It is to be understood, however, that the scope of this aspect of thepresent invention is not to be limited to the treatment of anyparticular inflammatory response.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered to a mammal, includinghuman and non-human primates, as hereinabove described.

The mesenchymal stem cells also may be administered systemically, ashereinabove described. Alternatively, in the case of osteoarthritis orrheumatoid arthritis, the mesenchymal stem cells may be administereddirectly to an arthritic joint.

The mesenchymal stem cells are administered in an amount effective totreat an inflammatory response in an animal. The mesenchymal stem cellsmay be administered in an amount of from about 1×10⁵ cells/kg to about1×10⁷ cells/kg. In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells areadministered in an amount of from about 1×10⁶ cells/kg to about 5×10⁶cells/kg. The exact dosage of mesenchymal stem cells to be administeredis dependent upon a variety of factors, including the age, weight, andsex of the patient, the inflammatory response being treated, and theextent and severity thereof.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered in conjunction with anacceptable pharmaceutical carrier, as hereinabove described.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a method of treating inflammation and/or repairing epithelialdamage in an animal. The method comprises administering to the animalmesenchymal stem cells in an amount effective to treat the inflammationand/or epithelial damage in the animal.

Although the scope of this aspect of the present invention is not to belimited to any theoretical reasoning, it is believed that themesenchymal stem cells cause a decrease in the secretion of thepro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and Interferon-γ by T-cells, and anincrease in the secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokinesInterleukin-10 (IL-10) and Interleukin-4 (IL-4) by T-cells. It is alsobelieved that the mesenchymal stem cells cause a decrease inInterferon-γ secretion by natural killer (NK) cells.

The inflammation and/or epithelial damage which may be treated inaccordance with this aspect of the present invention includes, but isnot limited to, inflammation and/or epithelial damage caused by avariety of diseases and disorders, including, but not limited to,autoimmune disease, rejection of transplanted organs, burns, cuts,lacerations, and ulcerations, including skin ulcerations and diabeticulcerations.

In one embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells are administered to ananimal in order to repair epithelial damage resulting from autoimmunediseases, including, but not limited to, rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn'sDisease, Type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, scleroderma, Graves'Disease, lupus, inflammatory bowel disease, autoimmune gastritis (AIG),and autoimmune glomerular disease. The mesenchymal stem cells also mayrepair epithelial damage resulting from graft-versus-host disease(GVHD).

This aspect of the present invention is applicable particularly to therepair of epithelial damage resulting from graft-versus-host disease,and more particularly, to the repair of epithelial damage resulting fromsevere graft-versus-host disease, including Grades III and IVgraft-versus-host disease affecting the skin and/or the gastrointestinalsystem. Applicants have discovered, in particular, that mesenchymal stemcells, when administered to a patient suffering from severegraft-versus-host disease, and in particular, Grades III and IVgastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease, the administration of themesenchymal stem cells resulted in repair of skin and/or ulceratedintestinal epithelial tissue in the patient.

In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells are administered to ananimal in order to repair epithelial damage to a transplanted organ ortissue including, but not limited to, kidney, heart, and lung, caused byrejection of the transplanted organ or tissue.

In yet another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells are administeredto an animal to repair epithelial damage caused by burns, cuts,lacerations, and ulcerations, including, but not limited to, skinulcerations and diabetic ulcerations.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered to a mammal, includinghuman and non-human primates, as hereinabove described.

The mesenchymal stem cells also may be administered systemically, ashereinabove described.

The mesenchymal stem cells are administered in an amount effective torepair epithelial damage in an animal. The mesenchymal stem cells may beadministered in an amount of from about 1×10⁵ cells/kg to about 1×10⁷cells/kg. In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells areadministered in an amount of from about 1×10⁶ cells/kg to about 5×10⁶cells/kg. The exact dosage of mesenchymal stem cells to be administeredis dependent upon a variety of factors, including the age, weight, andsex of the patient, the type of epithelial damage being repaired, andthe extent and severity thereof.

In accordance with yet another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a method of treating cancer in an animal. The method comprisesadministering to the animal mesenchymal stem cells in an amounteffective to treat cancer in the animal.

Although the scope of this aspect of the present invention is not to belimited to any theoretical reasoning, it is believed that themesenchymal stem cells interact with dendritic cells, which leads toIFN-β secretion, which in turn acts as a tumor suppressor. Cancers whichmay be treated include, but are not limited to, hepatocellularcarcinoma, cervical cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer,fibrosarcoma, medullablastoma, and astrocytoma. It is to be understood,however, that the scope of the present invention is not to be limited toany specific type of cancer.

The animal may be a mammal, including human and non-human primates, ashereinabove described.

The mesenchymal stem cells are administered to the animal in an amounteffective to treat cancer in the animal. In general, the mesenchymalstem cells are administered in an amount of from about 1×10⁵ cells/kg toabout 1×10⁷ cells/kg. In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cellsare administered in an amount of from about 1×10⁶ cells/kg to about5×10⁶ cells/kg. The exact amount of mesenchymal stem cells to beadministered is dependent upon a variety of factors, including the age,weight, and sex of the patient, the type of cancer being treated, andthe extent and severity thereof.

The mesenchymal stem cells are administered in conjunction with anacceptable pharmaceutical carrier, and may be administered systemically,as hereinabove described. Alternatively, the mesenchymal stem cells maybe administered directly to the cancer being treated.

In accordance with still another aspect of the present invention, thereis provided a method of treating an allergic disease or disorder in ananimal. The method comprises administering to the animal mesenchymalstem cells in an amount effective to treat the allergic disease ordisorder in the animal.

Although the scope of this aspect of the present invention is not to belimited to any theoretical reasoning, it is believed that mesenchymalstem cells, when administered after an acute allergic response, providefor inhibition of mast cell activation and degranulation. Also, it isbelieved that the mesenchymal stem cells downregulate basophilactivation and inhibit cytokines such as TNF-α, chemokines such asInterleukin-8 and monocyte chemoattractant protein, or MCP-1, lipidmediators such as leukotrienes, and inhibit main mediators such ashistamine, heparin, chondroitin sulfates, and cathepsin.

Allergic diseases or disorders which may be treated include, but are notlimited to, asthma, allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and contactdermatitis. It is to be understood, however, that the scope of thepresent invention is not to be limited to any specific allergic diseaseor disorder.

The mesenchymal stem cells are administered to the animal in an amounteffective to treat the allergic disease or disorder in the animal. Theanimal may be a mammal. The mammal may be a primate, including human andnon-human primates. In general, the mesenchymal stem cells areadministered in an amount of from about 1×10⁵ cells/kg to about 1×10⁷cells/kg. In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells areadministered in an amount of from about 1×10⁶ cells/kg to about 5×10⁶cells/kg. The exact dosage is dependent upon a variety of factors,including the age, weight, and sex of the patient, the allergic diseaseor disorder being treated, and the extent and severity thereof.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered in conjunction with anacceptable pharmaceutical carrier, as hereinabove described. Themesenchymal stem cells may be administered systemically, such as byintravenous or intraarterial administration, for example.

In accordance with a further aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a method of promoting wound healing in an animal. The methodcomprises administering to the animal mesenchymal stem cells in anamount effective to promote wound healing in the animal.

Although the scope of the present invention is not to be limited to anytheoretical reasoning, it is believed that, as mentioned hereinabove,the mesenchymal stem cells cause T_(reg) cells and dendritic cells torelease Interleukin-10 (IL-10). The IL-10 limits or controlsinflammation in a wound, thereby promoting healing of a wound.

Furthermore, the mesenchymal stem cells may promote wound healing andfracture healing by inducing secretion factors by other cell types. Forexample, the mesenchymal stem cells may induce prostaglandin E2(PGE₂)-mediated release of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) byperipheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), as well as PGE₂-mediatedrelease of growth hormone, insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3), andendothelin-1.

Wounds which may be healed include, but are not limited to, thoseresulting from cuts, lacerations, burns, and skin ulcerations.

The mesenchymal stem cells are administered to the animal in an amounteffective to promote wound healing in the animal. The animal may be amammal, and the mammal may be a primate, including human and non-humanprimates. In general, the mesenchymal stem cells are administered in anamount of from about 1×10⁵ cells/kg to about 1×10⁷ cells/kg. In anotherembodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells are administered in an amount offrom about 1×10⁶ cells/kg to about 5×10⁶ cells/kg. The exact amount ofmesenchymal stem cells to be administered is dependent upon a variety offactors, including the age, weight, and sex of the patient, and theextent and severity of the wound being treated.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered in conjunction with anacceptable pharmaceutical carrier, as hereinabove described. Themesenchymal stem cells may be administered systemically, as hereinabovedescribed. Alternatively, the mesenchymal stem cells may be administereddirectly to a wound, such as in a fluid on a dressing or reservoircontaining the mesenchymal stem cells.

In accordance with yet another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a method of treating or preventing fibrosis in an animal. Themethod comprises administering to the animal mesenchymal stem cells inan amount effective to treat or prevent fibrosis in an animal.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered to the animal in order totreat or prevent any type of fibrosis in the animal, including, but notlimited to, cirrhosis of the liver, fibrosis of the kidneys associatedwith end-stage renal disease, and fibrosis of the lungs, including, butnot limited to, Acute Respiratory Diseases Syndrome (ARDS) and chronicobstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It is to be understood that thescope of the present invention is not to be limited to any specific typeof fibrosis.

The mesenchymal stem cells are administered to the animal in an amounteffective to treat or prevent fibrosis in the animal. The animal may bea mammal, and the mammal may be a primate, including human and non-humanprimates. In general, the mesenchymal stem cells are administered in anamount of from about 1×10⁵ cells/kg to about 1×10⁷ cells/kg. In anotherembodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells are administered in an amount offrom about 1×10⁶ cells/kg to about 5×10⁶ cells/kg. The exact amount ofmesenchymal stem cells to be administered is dependent upon a variety offactors, including the age, weight, and sex of the patient, and theextent and severity of the fibrosis being treated or prevented.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered in conjunction with anacceptable pharmaceutical carrier, as hereinabove described. Themesenchymal stem cells may be administered systemically, also ashereinabove described.

It is another object of the present invention to promote angiogenesis ina tissue or organ of an animal, wherein such tissue or organ is in needof angiogenesis.

Thus, in accordance with a further aspect of the present invention,there is provided a method of promoting angiogenesis in an organ ortissue of an animal. The method comprises administering to the animalmesenchymal stem cells in an amount effective to promote angiogenesis inan organ or tissue of the animal.

Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels from a pre-existingmicrovascular bed.

The induction of angiogenesis may be used to treat coronary andperipheral artery insufficiency, and thus may be a noninvasive andcurative approach to the treatment of coronary artery disease, ischemicheart disease, and peripheral artery disease. Angiogenesis may play arole in the treatment of diseases and disorders in tissue and organsother than the heart, as well as in the development and/or maintenanceof organs other than the heart. Angiogenesis may provide a role in thetreatment of internal and external wounds, as well as dermal ulcers.Angiogenesis also plays a role in embryo implantation, and placentalgrowth, as well as the development of the embryonic vasculature.Angiogenesis also is essential for the coupling of cartilage resorptionwith bone formation, and is essential for correct growth platemorphogenesis.

Furthermore, angiogenesis is necessary for the successful engineeringand maintenance of highly metabolic organs, such as the liver, where adense vascular network is necessary to provide sufficient nutrient andgas transport.

The mesenchymal stem cells can be administered to the tissue or organ inneed of angiogenesis by a variety of procedures. The mesenchymal stemcells may be administered systemically, such as by intravenous,intraarterial, or intraperitoneal administration, or the mesenchymalstem cells may be administered directly to the tissue or organ in needof angiogenesis, such as by direct injection into the tissue or organ inneed of angiogenesis.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be from a spectrum of sources includingautologous, allogeneic, or xenogeneic.

Although the scope of the present invention is not to be limited to anytheoretical reasoning, it is believed that the mesenchymal stem cells,when administered to an animal, stimulate peripheral blood mononuclearcells (PBMCs) to produce vascular endothelial growth factor, or VEGF,which stimulates the formation of new blood vessels.

In one embodiment, the animal is a mammal. The mammal may be a primate,including human and non-human primates.

The mesenchymal stem cells, in accordance with the present invention,may be employed in the treatment, alleviation, or prevention of anydisease or disorder which can be alleviated, treated, or preventedthrough angiogenesis. Thus, for example, the mesenchymal stem cells maybe administered to an animal to treat blocked arteries, including thosein the extremities, i.e., arms, legs, hands, and feet, as well as theneck or in various organs. For example, the mesenchymal stem cells maybe used to treat blocked arteries which supply the brain, therebytreating or preventing stroke. Also, the mesenchymal stem cells may beused to treat blood vessels in embryonic and postnatal corneas and maybe used to provide glomerular structuring. In another embodiment, themesenchymal stem cells may be employed in the treatment of wounds, bothinternal and external, as well as the treatment of dermal ulcers foundin the feet, hands, legs or arms, including, but not limited to, dermalulcers caused by diseases such as diabetes and sickle cell anemia.

Furthermore, because angiogenesis is involved in embryo implantation andplacenta formation, the mesenchymal stem sells may be employed topromote embryo implantation and prevent miscarriage.

In addition, the mesenchymal stem cells may be administered to an unbornanimal, including humans, to promote the development of the vasculaturein the unborn animal.

In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells may be administered toan animal, born or unborn, in order to promote cartilage resorption andbone formation, as well as promote correct growth plate morphogenesis.

The mesenchymal stem cells are administered in an amount effective inpromoting angiogenesis in an animal. The mesenchymal stem cells may beadministered in an amount of from about 1×10⁵ cells/kg to about 1×10⁷cells/kg. In another embodiment, the mesenchymal stem cells areadministered in an amount of from about 1×10⁶ cells/kg to about 5×10⁶cells/kg. The amount of mesenchymal stem cells to be administered isdependent upon a variety of factors, including the age, weight, and sexof the patient, the disease or disorder to be treated, alleviated, orprevented, and the extent and severity thereof.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be administered in conjunction with anacceptable pharmaceutical carrier. For example, the mesenchymal stemcells may be administered as a cell suspension in a pharmaceuticallyacceptable liquid medium for injection. Injection can be local, i.e.,directly into the tissue or organ in need of angiogenesis, or systemic.

The mesenchymal stem cells may be genetically engineered with one ormore polynucleotides encoding a therapeutic agent. The polynucleotidesmay be delivered to the mesenchymal stem cells via an appropriateexpression vehicle. Expression vehicles which may be employed togenetically engineer the mesenchymal stem cells include, but are notlimited to, retroviral vectors, adenoviral vectors, and adeno-associatedvirus vectors.

The selection of an appropriate polynucleotide encoding a therapeuticagent is dependent upon various factors, including the disease ordisorder being treated, and the extent and severity thereof.Polynucleotides encoding therapeutic agents, and appropriate expressionvehicles are described further in U.S. Pat. No. 6,355,239.

It is to be understood that the mesenchymal stem cells, when employed inthe above-mentioned therapies and treatments, may be employed incombination with other therapeutic agents known to those skilled in theart, including, but not limited to, growth factors, cytokines, drugssuch as anti-inflammatory drugs, and cells other than mesenchymal stemcells, such as dendritic cells, and may be administered with solublecarriers for cells such as hyalurionic acid, or in combination withsolid matrices, such collagen, gelatin, or other biocompatible polymers,as appropriate.

It is to be understood that the methods described herein may be carriedout in a number of ways and with various modifications and permutationsthereof that are well known in the art. It also may be appreciated thatany theories set forth as to modes of action or interactions betweencell types should not be construed as limiting this invention in anymanner, but are presented such that the methods of the invention can beunderstood more fully.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention now will be described with respect to the drawings,wherein:

FIGS. 1A-C MSCs modulate dendritic cell functions. (A) Flow cytometricanalysis of mature monocytic DC1 cells using antibodies against HLA-DRand CD11c and of plasmacytoid DC2 cells using antibodies against HLA-DRand CD123 (IL-3 receptor). (---): isotype control; (—): FITC/PEconjugated antibodies. (B) MSCs inhibit TNF-α secretion (primary y-axis)and increase IL-10 secretion (secondary y-axis) from activated DC1 andDC2 respectively. (C) MSCs cultured with mature DC1 cells inhibit IFN-γsecretion (primary y-axis) by T cells and increase IL-4 levels(secondary y-axis) as compared to MSC or DC alone. The decreasedproduction of pro-inflammatory IFN-γ and increased production ofanti-inflammatory IL-4 in the presence of MSCs indicated a shift in theT cell population towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype.

FIGS. 2A-C MSCs inhibit pro-inflammatory effector T cell function. (A)Flow cytometric analysis of T_(Reg) cell numbers (in %) by stainingPBMCs or non-adherent fraction in MSC+PBMC culture (MSC+PBMC) withFITC-conjugated CD4 (x-axis) and PE conjugated CD25 (y-axis) antibodies.Gates were set based on isotype control antibodies as background. Graphsare representative of 5 independent experiments. (B) T_(H)1 cellsgenerated in presence of MSCs secreted reduced levels of IFN-γ (primaryy-axis) and T_(H)2 cells generated in presence of MSCs secretedincreased amounts of IL-4 (secondary y-axis) in cell culturesupernatants. (C) MSCs inhibit IFN-γ secretion from purified NK cellscultured for 0, 24, or 48 hours in a 24-well plate. Data shown aremean±SD cytokine secretion in one experiment and are representative of 3independent experiments.

FIGS. 3A-B MSCs lead to increased numbers of T_(reg) cell population andincreased GITR expression. (A) A CD4⁺ CD25+ T_(reg) cell population fromPBMC or MSC+PBMC (MSC to PBMC ratio 1:10) cultures (cultured without anyfurther stimulation for 3 days) was isolated using a 2-step magneticisolation procedure. These cells were irradiated (to block any furtherproliferation) and used as stimulators in a mixed lymphocyte reaction(MLR), where responders were allogeneic PBMCs (stimulator to responderratio 1:100) in the presence of phytohemagglutinin (PHA) (2.5 mg/ml).The cells were cultured for 48 hours, following which ³H thymidime wasadded, and incorporated radioactivity was counted after 24 hours. Theresults showed that the T_(reg) population generated in the presence ofMSCs (lane 3) was similar functionally to the T_(reg) cells generated inthe absence of MSCs (lane 2). (B) PBMCs were cultured for 3 days in theabsence (top plot) or presence (bottom plot) of MSCs (MSC to PBMC ratio1:10), following which the non-adherent fraction was harvested andimmunostained with FITC-labeled GITR and PE-labeled CD4. Results show agreater than twofold increase in GITR expression in cells cultured inthe presence of MSCs.

FIGS. 4A-D MSCs produce PGE₂ and blocking PGE₂ reverses MSC-mediatedimmuno-modulatory effects. (A) PGE₂ secretion (mean±SD) in culturesupernatants obtained from MSCs cultured in the presence or absence ofPGE₂ blockers NS-398 or indomethacin (Indometh.) at variousconcentrations. Inhibitor concentrations are in μM and data presentedare values obtained after 24 hour culture (B) COX-1 and COX-2 expressionin MSCs and PBMCs using real-time RT-PCR. MSCs expressed significantlyhigher levels of COX-2 as compared to PBMCs, and when MSCs were culturedin presence of PBMCs, there was a >3-fold increase in COX-2 expressionin MSCs. Representative data from 1 of 3 independent experiments isshown. The MSC+PBMC cultures were setup in a trans-well chamber platewhere MSCs were plated onto the bottom chamber and PBMCs onto the topchamber. (C) Presence of PGE₂ blockers indomethacin (Ind.) or NS-398increases TNF-α secretion from activated DCs (□) and IFN-γ secretionfrom T_(H)1 cells (▪) as compared to controls. Data were calculated as %change from cultures generated in absence of MSCs and PGE₂ inhibitors(D) Presence of PGE₂ blockers indomethacin (Indo) and NS-398 duringMSC-PBMC co-culture (1:10) reverses MSC-mediated anti-proliferativeeffects on PHA-treated PBMCs. Data shown are from one experiment and arerepresentative of 3 independent experiments.

FIG. 5 Constitutive MSC cytokine secretion is elevated in the presenceof allogeneic PBMCs. Using previously characterized human MSCs, thelevels of the cytokines IL-6 and VEGF, lipid mediator PGE₂, and matrixmetalloproteinase 1 (pro-MMP-1) in culture supernatant of MSCs culturedfor 24 hours in the presence (hatched bars) or absence (open bars) ofPBMCs (MSC to PBMC ratio 1:10) were analyzed. The MSCs produced IL-6,VEGF, and PGE₂ constituitively, and the levels of these factorsincreased upon co-culture with PBMCs, thereby suggesting that MSCs mayplay a role in modulating immune functions in an inflammatory setting.

FIG. 6 MSCs inhibit mitogen-induced T-cell proliferation in adose-dependent manner. Increasing numbers of allogeneic PBMCs wereincubated with constant numbers of MSCs (2,000 cells/well) plated on a96-well plate in the presence or absence of PHA (2.5 mg/ml) for 72hours, and ³H thymidine incorporation determined (in counts per minute,or cpm). There was a dose-dependent inhibition of the proliferation ofPHA-treated PBMCs in the presence of MSCs. Representative results from 1of 3 independent experiments are shown. Similar results were reported byLeBlanc, et al., Scand J. Immunol., Vol. 57, pg. 11 (2003).

FIG. 7 Schematic diagram of proposed MSC mechanism of action. MSCsmediate their immuno-modulatory effects by affecting cells from both theinnate (DCs-pathways 2-4; and NK-pathway 6) and adaptive (T-pathways 1and 5 and B-pathway 7) immune systems. In response to an invadingpathogen, immature DCs migrate to the site of potential entry, matureand acquire an ability to prime naïve T cells (by means of antigenspecific and co-stimulatory signals) to become protective effector Tcells (cell-mediated T_(H)1 or humoral T_(H)2 immunity). During MSC-DCinteraction, MSCs, by means of direct cell-cell contact or via secretedfactor, may alter the outcome of immune response by limiting the abilityof DCs to mount a cell-mediated response (pathway 2) or by promoting theability to mount a humoral response (pathway 4). Also, when matureeffector T cells are present, MSCs may interact with them to skew thebalance of T_(H)1 (pathway 1) responses towards T_(H)2 responses(pathway 5), and probably towards an increased IgE producing B cellactivity (pathway 7), desirable outcomes for suppression of GvHD andautoimmune disease symptoms. MSCs in their ability to result in anincreased generation of T_(Reg) population (pathway 3) may result in atolerant phenotype and may aid a recipient host by dampening bystanderinflammation in their local micro-environment. Dashed line (----)represents proposed mechanism.

EXAMPLES

The invention now will be described with respect to the followingexamples; it is to be understood, however, that the scope of the presentinvention is not to be limited thereby.

Example 1 Materials and Methods

Culture of Human MSCs

Human MSCs were cultured as described by Pittenger et al., Science, Vol.284, pg. 143 (1999). Briefly, marrow samples were collected from theiliac crest of anonymous donors following informed consent by PoieticsTechnologies, Div of Cambrex Biosciences. MSCs were cultured in completeDulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium-Low Glucose (Life Technologies,Carlsbad, Calif.) containing 1% antibiotic-antimyotic solution(Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) and 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS, JRHBioSciences, Lenexa, Kans.). MSCs grew as an adherent monolayer and weredetached with trypsin/EDTA (0.05% trypsin at 37° C. for 3 minutes). AllMSCs used were previously characterized for multilineage potential andretained the capacity to differentiate into mesenchymal lineages(chondrocytic, adipogenic, and osteogenic) (Pittenger, et al., Science,Vol. 284, pg. 143 (1999)).

Isolation of Dendritic cells

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were obtained from PoieticsTechnologies, Div of Cambrex Biosciences (Walkersville, Md.). Precursorsof dendritic cells (DCs) of monocytic lineage (CD1c⁺) were positivelyselected from PBMCs using a 2-step magnetic separation method accordingto Dzionek, et al., J. Immunol., Vol. 165, pg. 6037 (2000). Briefly,CD1c expressing B cells were magnetically depleted of CD19⁺ cells usingmagnetic beads, followed by labeling the B-cell depleted fraction withbiotin-labeled CD1c (BDCA1⁺) and anti-biotin antibodies and separatingthem from the unlabeled cell fraction utilizing magnetic columnsaccording to the manufacturer's instructions (Miltenyi Biotech, Auburn,Calif.). Precursors of DCs of plasmacytoid lineage were isolated fromPBMCs by immuno-magnetic sorting of positively labeled antibody coatedcells (BDCA2⁺) (Miltenyi Biotech, Auburn, Calif.).

MSC·DC culture

In most experiments, human MSCs and DCs were cultured in equal numbersfor various time periods and cell culture supernatant collected andstored at −80° C. until further evaluation. In selected experiments,MSCs were cultured with mature DC1 or DC2 cells (1:1 MSC:DC ratio) for 3days, and then the combined cultures (MSCs and DCs) were irradiated toprevent any proliferation. Next, antibody purified, naïve, allogeneic Tcells (CD4⁺,CD45RA⁺) were added to the irradiated MSCs/DCs and culturedfor an additional 6 days. The non-adherent cell fraction (purified Tcells) was then collected from the cultures, washed twice andre-stimulated with PHA for another 24 hours, following which cellculture supernatants were harvested and analyzed for secreted IFN-γ andIL-4 by ELISA.

Isolation of NK Cells

Purified populations of NK cells were obtained by depleting non-NK cellsthat are magnetically labeled with a cocktail of biotin-conjugatedmonoclonal antibodies (anti-CD3, -CD14, -CD19, -CD36 and anti-IgEantibodies) as a primary reagent and anti-biotin monoclonal antibodiesconjugated to Microbeads as secondary labeling reagent. The magneticallylabeled non-NK cells were retained in MACS (Miltenyi Biotech, Auburn,Calif.) columns in a magnetic field, while NK cells passed through andwere collected.

Isolation of T_(Reg) Cell Population

The T_(Reg) cell population was isolated using a 2-step isolationprocedure. First non-CD4⁺ T cells were indirectly magnetically labeledwith a cocktail of biotin labeled antibodies and anti-biotin microbeads.The labeled cells were then depleted by separation over a MACS column(Miltenyi Biotech, Auburn, Calif.). Next, CD4⁺CD25⁺ cells were directlylabeled with CD25 microbeads and isolated by positive selection from thepre-enriched CD4⁺ T cell fraction. The magnetically labeled CD4⁺CD25⁺ Tcells were retained on the column and eluted after removal of the columnfrom the magnetic field.

In order to determine whether the increased CD4+CD25+ populationgenerated in the presence of MSCs were suppressive in nature, CD4+CD25+T_(reg) cell populations were isolated from PBMC or MSC+PBMC (MSC toPBMC ratio 1:10) cultures (cultured without any further stimulation for3 days) using a 2-step magnetic isolation procedure. These cells wereirradiated to block any further proliferation and used as stimulators ina mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR), where responders were allogeneicPBMCs (stimulator to responder ratio 1:100) in the presence of PHA (2.5μg/ml). The culture was carried out for 48 hours, following which ³Hthymidine was added. Incorporated radioactivity was counted after 24hours.

PBMCs were cultured in the absence or presence of MSCs (MSC to PBMCratio 1:10), following which the non-adherent fraction was harvested andimmunostained with FITC-labeled glucocorticoid-induced TNF receptor, orGITR, and PE-labeled CD4.

Generation of T_(H)1/T_(H)2 Cells

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were plated at 2×10⁶ cells/mlfor 45 min. at 37° C. in order to remove monocytes. Non-adherentfraction was incubated in the presence of plate-bound anti-CD3 (5 μg/ml)and anti-CD28 (1 μg/ml) antibodies under T_(H)1 (IL-2 (4 ng/ml)+IL-12 (5ng/ml)+anti-IL-4 (1 μg/ml)) or T_(H)2 (IL-2 (4 ng/ml)+IL-4 (4ng/ml)+anti-IFN-γ (1 μg/ml)) conditions for 3 days in the presence orabsence of MSCs. The cells were washed and then re-stimulated with PHA(2.5 μg/ml) for another 24 or 48 hours, following which levels of IFN-γand IL-4 were measured in culture supernatants by ELISA (R&D Systems,Minneapolis, Minn.).

Analysis of Levels of VEGF, PGE₂ and Pro-MMP-1 in Culture Supernatant ofMSCs.

Using previously characterized human MSCs, the levels of Interleukin-6(IL-6), VEGF, lipid mediator prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and matrixmetalloproteinase 1 (pro-MMP-1) were analyzed in culture supernatant ofMSCs cultured for 24 hours in the presence or absence of PBMCs (MSC toPBMC ratio 1:10).

Proliferation of PBMCs

Purified PBMCs were prepared by centrifuging leukopack (Cambrex,Walkersville, Md.) on Ficoll-Hypaque (Lymphoprep, Oslo, Norway).Separated cells were cultured (in triplicates) in the presence orabsence of MSCs (plated 3-4 hours prior to PBMC addition to allow themto settle) for 48 hours in presence of the mitogen PHA (Sigma Chemicals,St. Louis, Mo.). In selected experiments, PBMCs were resuspended inmedium containing PGE₂ inhibitors Indomethacin (Sigma Chemicals, St.Louis, Mo.) or NS-938 (Cayman Chemicals, Ann Arbor, Mich.).(³H)-thymidine was added (20 μl in a 200 μl culture) and the cellsharvested after an additional 24 hour culture using an automaticharvester. The effects of MSCs or PGE₂ blockers were calculated as thepercentage of the control response (100%) in presence of PHA.

Quantitative RT-PCR

Total RNA from cell pellets were prepared using a commercially availablekit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.) and according to the manufacturer'sinstructions. Contaminating genomic DNA was removed using the DNA-freekit (Ambion, Austin, Tex.). Quantitative RT-PCR was performed on a MJResearch Opticon detection system (South San Francisco, Calif.) usingQuantiTect SYBR Green RT-PCR kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.) with primersat concentration of 0.5 μM. Relative changes in expression levels incells cultured under different conditions were calculated by thedifference in Ct values (crossing point) using β-actin as internalcontrol. The sequence for COX-1 and COX-2 specific primers were: COX-1:5′-CCG GAT GCC AGT CAG GAT GAT G-3′(forward) (SEQ ID NO:1), 5′-CTA GACAGC CAG ATG CTG ACA G-3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:2); COX-2: 5′-ATC TAC CCTCCT CAA GTC CC-3′(forward) (SEQ ID NO:3), 5′-TAC CAG AAG GGC AGG ATACAG-3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:4).

Increasing numbers of allogeneic PBMCs were incubated with constantnumbers of MSCs (2,000 cells/well) plated on a 96-well plate in thepresence of PHA (2.5 μg/ml) for 72 hours, and ³H thymidine incorporation(counts per minute, cpm) was determined. The PBMCs and MSCs werecultured at ratios of MSC:PBMC of 1:1, 1:3, 1:10, 1:30, and 1:81.

Results

In the present studies, the interaction of human MSCs with isolatedimmune cell populations, including dendritic cells (DC1 and DC2),effector T cells (T_(H)1 and T_(H)2) and NK cells was examined. Theinteraction of MSCs with each immune cell type had specificconsequences, suggesting that MSCs may modulate several steps in theimmune response process. The production of secreted factor(s) thatmodulate and may be responsible for MSC immuno-modulatory effects wasevaluated and prostaglandin synthesis was implicated.

Myeloid (DC1) and plasmacytoid (DC2) precursor dendritic cells wereisolated by immuno-magnetic sorting of BDCA1⁺ and BDCA2⁺ cellsrespectively and matured by incubation with GM-CSF and IL-4 (1×10³ IU/mland 1×10³ IU/ml, respectively) for DC1 cells, or IL-3 (10 ng/ml) for DC2cells. Using flow cytometry, DC1 cells were HLA-DR+ and CD11c+, whereasDC2 cells were HLA-DR+ and CD123+(FIG. 1A). In the presence of theinflammatory agent bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 1 ng/ml), DC1cells produced moderate levels of TNF-α but when MSCs were present(ratios examined 1:1 and 1:10), there was >50% reduction in TNF-αsecretion (FIG. 1B). On the other hand, DC2 cells produced IL-10 in thepresence of LPS and its levels were increased greater than 2-fold uponMSC:DC2 co-culture (1:1) (FIG. 1B). Therefore, the MSCs modified thecytokine profile of activated DCs in culture towards a more tolerogenicphenotype. Additionally, activated DCs, when cultured with MSCs, wereable to reduce IFN-γ and increase IL-4 levels secreted by naïve CD4+ Tcells (FIG. 1C) suggesting a MSC-mediated shift from pro-inflammatory toanti-inflammatory T cell phenotype.

As increased IL-10 secretion plays a role in generation of regulatorycells (Kingsley, et al., J. Immunol., Vol. 168, pg. 1080 (2002)),T-regulatory cells (T_(Reg)) were quantified by flow cytometry inco-cultures of PBMCs and MSCs. Upon culture of PBMCs with MSCs for 3-5days, there was an increase in T_(Reg) cell numbers as determined bystaining of PBMCs with anti-CD4 and anti-CD25 antibodies (FIG. 2A),further supporting a MSC-induced tolerogenic response. The CD4⁺CD25⁺T_(Reg) cell population, generated in presence of MSCs expressedincreased levels of gluocorticoid-induced TNF receptor (GITR), a cellsurface receptor expressed on T_(Reg) cell populations, and wassuppressive in nature as it suppressed allogeneic T cell proliferation(FIG. 3A,B). Next, MSCs were investigated as to their direct ability toaffect T cell differentiation. Using antibody selected purified T cells(CD4+ Th cells), IFN-γ producing T_(H)1 and IL-4 producing T_(H)2 cellswere generated in presence or absence of MSCs. When MSCs were presentduring differentiation, there was reduced IFN-γ secretion by T_(H)1cells and increased IL-4 secretion by T_(H)2 cells (FIG. 2B). Nosignificant change in IFN-γ or IL-4 levels were seen when MSCs wereadded to the culture after Th cells had differentiated (at 3 days) intoeffector T_(H)1 or T_(H)2 types (data not shown). These experimentssuggest that MSCs can affect effector T cell differentiation directlyand alter the T cell cytokine secretion towards a humoral phenotype.

Similarly, when MSCs were cultured with purified NK cells (CD3−, CD14−,CD19−, CD36⁻) at a ratio 1:1 for different time periods (0-48 hrs),there was decreased IFN-γ secretion in the culture supernatant (FIG.2C), thereby suggesting that MSCs can modulate NK cell functions also.

Previous work has indicated that MSCs modify T-cell functions by solublefactor(s) (LeBlanc, et al., EXP. Hematol., Vol. 31, pg. 890 (2003); Tse,et al., Transplantation, Vol. 75, pg. 389 (2003). It was observed thatthe MSCs secreted several factors, including IL-6, prostaglandin E₂,VEGF and proMMP-1 constitutively, and the levels of each increased uponculture with PBMCs (FIG. 5). In order to investigate MSC-derived factorsleading to inhibition of TNF-α and increase of IL-10 production by DCs,the potential role of prostaglandin E₂ was investigated, as it has beenshown to inhibit TNF-α production by activated DCs (Vassiliou, et al.,Cell. Immunol., Vol. 223, pg. 120 (2003)). Conditioned media from MSCculture (24 hour culture of 0.5×10⁶ cells/ml) contained approx. 1000pg/ml of PGE₂ (FIG. 4A). There was no detectable presence of knowninducers of PGE₂ secretion, e.g., TNF-α, IFN-γ or IL-1β (data not shown)in the culture supernatant indicating a constitutive secretion of PGE₂by MSCs. The PGE₂ secretion by hMSCs was inhibited 60-90% in thepresence of known inhibitors of PGE₂ production, NS-398 (5 μM) andindomethacin (4 μM) (FIG. 4A). As the release of PGE₂ secretion occursas a result of enzymatic activity of constitutively active cycloxygenaseenzyme 1 (COX-1) and inducible cycloxygenase enzyme 2 (COX-2) (Harris,et al., Trends Immunol., Vol. 23, pg. 144 (2002)) the mRNA expressionfor COX-1 and COX-2 in MSCs and PBMCs using trans-well culture systemwas analyzed. MSCs expressed significantly higher levels of COX-2 ascompared to PBMCs and the expression levels increase >3-fold uponco-culture of MSCs and PBMCs (MSC to PBMC ratio 1:10) for 24 hours (FIG.4B). Modest changes in COX-1 levels were seen suggesting that theincrease in PGE₂ secretion upon MSC-PBMC co-culture (FIG. 5) is mediatedby COX-2 up-regulation. To investigate whether the immunomodulatoryeffects of MSC on DCs and T-cells were mediated by PGE₂, MSCs werecultured with activated dendritic cells (DC1) or T_(H)1 cells in thepresence of PGE₂ inhibitors NS-398 or indomethacin. The presence ofNS-398 or indomethacin increased TNF-α secretion by DC1s, and IFN-γsecretion from T_(H)1 cells (FIG. 4C), respectively, suggesting that MSCeffects on immune cell types may be mediated by secreted PGE₂. Recentstudies have shown that MSCs inhibit T-cell proliferation induced byvarious stimuli (DeNicola, et al., Blood, Vol. 99, pg. 3838 (2002);LeBlanc, et al., Scand. J. Immunol., Vol. 57, pg. 11 (2003)). It wasobserved that MSCs inhibit mitogen-induced T cell proliferation in adose-dependent manner (FIG. 6) and when PGE₂ inhibitors NS-398 (5 μM) orindomethacin (4 μM) were present, there was a >70% increase in (³H)thymidine incorporation by PHA-treated PBMCs in MSC containing culturesas compared to controls without inhibitors (FIG. 4D).

In summary, a model of MSC interaction with other immune cell types(FIG. 7) is proposed. When mature T cells are present, MSCs may interactwith them directly and inhibit the pro-inflammatory IFN-γ production(pathway 1) and promote regulatory T cell phenotype (pathway 3) andanti-inflammatory T_(H)2 cells (pathway 5). Further, MSCs can alter theoutcome of the T cell immune response through DCs by secreting PGE₂,inhibiting pro-inflammatory DC1 cells (pathway 2) and promotinganti-inflammatory DC2 cells (pathway 4) or regulatory DCs (pathway 3). Ashift towards T_(H)2 immunity in turn, suggests a change in B cellactivity towards increased generation of IgE/IgG1 subtype antibodies(pathway 7). MSCs, by their ability to inhibit IFN-γ secretion from NKcells likely modify NK cell function (pathway 6). This model of MSC:Immune cell interactions is consistent with the experimentationperformed in several other laboratories (LeBlanc, et al., EXP. Hematol.,Vol. 31, pg. 890 (2003); Tse, et al., Transplantation, Vol. 75, pg. 389(2003); DiNicola, et al., Blood, Vol. 99, pg. 3838 (2002)). Furtherexamination of the proposed mechanisms is underway and animal studiesare now necessary to examine the in vivo effects of MSC administration.

Example 2

Mesenchymal stem cells were given to a 33-year-old female patientsuffering from severe Grade IV gastrointestinal graft-versus-hostdisease (GVHD). The patient was refractory to all other GVHD treatments.Endoscopic views of the patient's colon showed areas of ulceration andinflammation prior to treatment. Histology of the patient's colon showedthat the graft-versus-host disease had destroyed the vast majority ofthe patient's intestinal crypts, prior to treatment.

The patient was given an intravenous infusion of allogeneic mesenchymalstem cells in 50 ml of Plasma Lyte A in an amount of 3×10⁶ cells perkilogram of body weight.

The patient was evaluated at two weeks post-infusion. At two weekspost-infusion, an endoscopic view of the patient's colon showed that theareas of inflammation and ulceration visible prior to treatment wereresolved. In addition, a biopsy of the patient's colon showedsignificant regeneration of intestinal crypts. Thus, the administrationof the mesenchymal stem cells to the patient resulted in a significantreduction in the inflammatory component of gastrointestinalgraft-versus-host disease, and resulted in the regeneration of newfunctional intestinal tissue.

The disclosures of all patents, publications, including published patentapplications, depository accession numbers, and database accessionnumbers are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as ifeach patent, publication, depository accession number, and databaseaccession number were specifically and individually incorporated byreference.

It is to be understood, however, that the scope of the present inventionis not to be limited to the specific embodiments described above. Theinvention may be practiced other than as particularly described andstill be within the scope of the accompanying claims.

1-13. (canceled)
 14. Mesenchymal stem cells for use in reducing,limiting or preventing inflammation and promoting or enhancingangiogenesis in a tissue or organ of a human by regulating theproduction of factors that regulate steps in the immune responseprocess.
 15. The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14, wherein one or morenew blood vessels are formed from a pre-existing microvascular bed. 16.The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14, wherein the organ in need ofangiogenesis is the heart.
 17. The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 16,wherein the angiogenesis promoting mesenchymal stem cells treat coronaryartery disease, peripheral artery insufficiency, or ischemic heartdisease.
 18. The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14, wherein themesenchymal stem cells cause immune cells to decrease production oftumor necrosis factor alpha.
 19. The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 18,wherein the immune cells are monocytic cells.
 20. The mesenchymal stemcells of claim 14, wherein the mesenchymal stem cells cause immune cellsto decrease production of interferon-gamma.
 21. The mesenchymal stemcells of claim 20, wherein the immune cells are TH1 helper cells. 22.The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14, wherein the mesenchymal stemcells cause immune cells to increase production of interleukin
 10. 23.The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14, wherein the cells areadministered systemically.
 24. The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 23,wherein the cells are administered via intravenous, intraarterial orintraperitoneal routes of administration.
 25. The mesenchymal stem cellsof claim 14, wherein the cells are autologous, allogeneic or xenogeneic.26. The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14, wherein the cells stimulateperipheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) to produce vascularendothelial growth factor (VEGF).
 27. The mesenchymal stem cells ofclaim 14, wherein the angiogenesis alleviates symptoms associated withblocked arteries.
 28. The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14, whereinangiogenesis promoting mesenchymal stem cells are used to prevent strokeor stroke symptomology.
 29. The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14,wherein the cells are administered in an amount of from about 1×105cells/kg to about 1×107 cells/kg.
 30. (canceled)
 31. A method of usingthe mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14 for promoting angiogenesis in atissue or organ in need thereof.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein theorgan in need of angiogenesis is a heart.
 33. The method of claim 32,wherein the tissue or organ is affected by an ischemic condition. 34.The method of claim 33, wherein the method is used in the treatment ofcoronary artery disease, ischemic heart disease, peripheral arterydisease, or stroke.
 35. The mesenchymal stem cells of claim 14, whereinthe tissue in need of angiogenesis is an artery.
 36. The mesenchymalstem cells of claim 35, wherein the artery is at least one coronaryartery or at least one peripheral artery.
 37. A proangiogeniccomposition comprising mesenchymal stem cells capable of inducing theproduction of proangiogenic immune cells.
 38. The proangiogeniccomposition of claim 37, wherein the immune cells are tissueinfiltrating proangiogenic monocytic cells.
 39. The proangiogeniccomposition of claim 38, wherein the proangiogenic monocytes enhance theproduction of IL-10 and decrease the production of tumor necrosis factoralpha.
 40. The proangiogenic composition of claim 37, wherein themesenchymal stem cells are derived from bone marrow.
 41. Theproangiogenic composition of claim 37, wherein the mesenchymal stemcells induce or enhance the differentiation or production of theproangiogenic monocytic cells.
 42. The proangiogenic composition ofclaim 37, wherein the mesenchymal stem cells increase the production ofproangiogenic monocytic cells and decrease the production ofproinflammatory monocytic cells.
 43. An angiogenesis inducing monocyteexpressing an increased production of IL-10 in a tissue, organ, or bloodvessel in response to bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells beingintroduced into the tissue, organ, or blood vessel.
 44. A bone marrowderived mesenchymal stem cell for enhancing the angiogenic potency of amonocyte or macrophage.